Microcapsules prepared from crosslinkable polysaccharides, polycations and/or lipids and use therefor

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a new form of biocompatible materials (e.g., lipids, polycations, polysaccharides) which are capable of undergoing free radical polymerization, e.g., by using certain sources of light; methods of modifying certain synthetic and naturally occurring biocompatible materials to make polymerizable microcapsules containing biological material coated with said polymerizable materials, composites of said polymerizable materials, methods of making microcapsules and encapsulating biological materials therein, and apparatus for making microcapsules containing biological cells (particularly islets of Langerhans) coated with polymerizable alginate or with a composite thereof (e.g., alginate and PEG). The present invention also relates to drug delivery systems relating to the foregoing, as well as bioadhesives and wound dressings made utilizing the foregoing technology.

This application is a divisional application of U.S. Ser. No.08/232,054, filed Apr. 28, 1994, now pending, which is in turn a 371 ofPCT/US92/09364, filed Oct. 29, 1992, now abandoned, which is in turn acontinuation-in-part application of U.S. Ser. No. 07/784,267, filed Oct.29, 1991, now abandoned, the entire contents of each of which are herebyincorporated by reference herein.

The present invention relates to a new form of biocompatible materials(including lipids, polycations, and polysaccharides) which are capableof undergoing free radical polymerization. The invention also relates tomethods of modifying certain synthetic and naturally occurringbiocompatible materials to make polymerizable microcapsules containingbiological material. The invention also relates to composites of saidpolymerizable materials, methods of making microcapsules andencapsulating biological materials therein, and apparatus for makingmicrocapsules containing biological cells. The present invention alsorelates to drug delivery systems relating to the foregoing, andbioadhesives and wound dressings made utilizing the foregoingtechnology.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Over the past 10 to 15 years various combinations of ionic polymers havebeen tested and utilized for microencapsulation of live cells andtissues. The most widely accepted material of the prior art ispolylysine alginate, particular for in vivo applications. (Dupuy, 1988(12.); Chang, 1984 (3.); Braun, 1985 (2.); Goosen, 1985 (15.), Darquy,1985 (4.)). However, these polymers are water soluble in the form knownin the prior art, and therefore have been considered to be of limitedlong-term stability.

Polysaccharides such as alginates have been used extensively in recentyears in the food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and biomedical industries(Smidsr.o slashed.d and Skjak-Br.ae butted.k, 1990 (28.)). In thepharmaceutical and biomedical industries, their gel forming propertiesin the presence of multivalent cations have been exploited for themicroencapsulation of cells and tissue and controlled release of drugs.

It is the combination of multivalent (generally divalent) cations, suchas calcium, with the alginate, which provides the mechanical stabilityof the ionically crosslinked gel. However, in the physiologicalenvironment (e.g., in the transplantation of microencapsulated islets orfor drug release) extracellular concentrations of monovalent cations(such as sodium ions) exceed the concentration of divalent cations (suchas calcium). Under such conditions, these gels tend to lose theirmechanical stability over the long term due to diffusion, leading toexchange of divalent cations for monovalent cations in the physiologicalfluid.

In an effort to improve the mechanical stability of these gels, chemicalmodifications of the alginates have been proposed (Moe et al., 1991(24.)) utilizing covalent rather than ionic crosslinking. Thesetechniques involve the use of reagents, reaction conditions andrelatively long reaction periods which, if used for the encapsulation ofliving tissue, are likely to prove toxic and even fatal.

Researchers have used alginate gels for the immunoisolation oftransplanted tissue to treat insulin dependent diabetes (Lim and Sun,1980 (22.)). Alginates containing higher fractions of α-L-guluronic acidresidues (G-content) have been determined to be more biocompatible(i.e., they do not induce a cytokine response from monocytes) than thosecontaining a larger fraction of β-D mannuronic acid residues (M-content;see Soon-Shiong et al., 1991 (30.)). Thus, implanted gels of alginatescontaining a high M-content, when implanted in rats, show extensivefibrous overgrowth at 3 weeks while high G-content alginates show nofibrous overgrowth for the same implantation period.

Thus, it would be desirable to be able to provide alginates which arecovalently polymerized and are substantially more stable underphysiological conditions than are prior art alginate compounds andimplantation systems with alginate coats. It would also be desirable toprovide alginates which may be rapidly polymerized, relative to the rateof crosslinking with prior art ionically crosslinked systems.

Previous attempts to make stable polymers for microencapsulation havemet with limited success. Many of the more stable polymers appear to berelatively cytotoxic due in large part to the chemical reactivity of themonomer precursors used.

Other biocompatible materials such as lipids, polycations and otherpolysaccharides (e.g., hyaluronic acid and chitosan) have been used orsuggested for use in micro-encapsulation applications, but are subjectto similar drawbacks of slow and relatively unstable crosslinking. Theresultant polymers suffer from the same disadvantages as describedabove. It would, therefore, be desirable to modify such materials sothat they polymerize more rapidly and remain mechanically more stableunder typical physiological conditions of use.

Attempts to improve stability of capsule membranes include the use ofwater-insoluble polymers for microencapsulation such as acrylateco-polymers and methacrylate co-polymers (Gharapetian, et al., 1986(14.); Sefton, et al., 1987 (27.); Iwata, 1989 (19.); Dupuy, 1987 (11.))and photopolymerized polyacrylamide (Dupuy, 1988 (12.)). These methodssuffer from cytotoxicity of the materials or organic solvents associatedwith these polymers, as well as long-term in vivo lack ofbiocompatibility of these water-insoluble polymers.

It has recently been demonstrated that alginates containing higherfractions of α-L guluronic acid residues (G-content) are biocompatiblesince they do not induce cytokines responsible for fibroblastproliferation (Soon-Shiong, 1991 (30.)). Furthermore, encapsulatedislets in these high G-content alginate gels successfully reversediabetes in spontaneous diabetic dogs. Long-term function of theseionically crosslinked gels, however, has been hampered by chemical andpossibly mechanical disruption of the alginate-polylysine membrane,resulting in rejection and fibrous overgrowth of the exposed allograft.

The ideal encapsulation system requires a gel entrapment system ofmaterials which are mild and non-cytotoxic to living materials, providesan immunoprotective barrier to the recipient's immune system, allowsadequate diffusion of nutrients through the barrier to ensure cellsurvival, is biocompatible, and finally is chemically and mechanicallystable.

The alginate-polylysine entrapment system using high G alginates meetsmost of these criteria, except for limited stability of the membrane.The present disclosure describes materials and methods which increasethe mechanical stability of the ionically crosslinked alginate gelsystem either by increasing the strength of the ionic bonds involved inthe gellation process, or by providing material resulting in covalentcrosslinkage.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a new form of biocompatible materials,including lipids, polycations, polysaccharides, and particularlyalginate, chitosan and hyaluronic acid, which are capable of undergoingfree radical polymerization, e.g., by using certain sources of energy,such as light; methods of modifying certain synthetic and naturallyoccurring biocompatible materials to make polymerizable microcapsulescontaining biological material therein, composites of said polymerizablematerials, methods of making said microcapsules and encapsulatingbiological materials therein, and apparatus for making microcapsulescontaining biological cells (particularly islets of Langerhans) coatedwith said polymerizable material or with composites thereof, e.g.,alginate and PEG. The present invention also relates to drug deliverysystems relating to the foregoing, as well as bioadhesives and wounddressings made utilizing the foregoing technology.

Accordingly, a process has been developed for the crosslinking ofalginates and other polysaccharides, polycations and lipids underinnocuous conditions at physiological pH and reaction times inmilliseconds. Such conditions will ensure the survivability of theliving tissue involved. New biomaterials which are subject topolymerization under such innocuous conditions have also been developed.In accordance with the present invention, biological materialsencapsulated with the above-described polymerizable biocompatiblematerials have also been developed.

This process involves the chemical modification of polysaccharides (orother polymers) with polymerizable acrylate or acrylate-like groups. Awater soluble free radical initiator (e.g., a photosensitizer) is thenadded to this modified polymer solution in an aqueous buffer containingthe cells in suspension. The cell-containing suspension is then extrudedthrough a nozzle or emulsified to produce tiny droplets that can berapidly crosslinked in the presence of suitable free radical initiatingconditions (e.g., exposure to a suitable light source).

By chemical modification of alginate, for example, a unique biomaterialwhich has the dual capacity to undergo both ionic and covalentcrosslinking has been developed. By controlling the reactants andprocess of modification, the degree of ionic and/or covalentcross-linking can be modified. Furthermore, ionic bonding of this novelmodified alginate can be Strengthened by the use of cations with highaffinity for the anionic groups available, or by increasing the negativecharge density of naturally occurring alginate. These novel alginatematerials, with dual capacities of ionic and covalent crosslinkingfacilitate the invention methods of encapsulating biological materialand biologically active (or pharmaceutically active) agents.

The present invention provides an encapsulation system which gelsrapidly under conditions which are innocuous and gentle to living cells.The encapsulation system of the present invention is more stable thanmany prior art systems because the compounds are covalently polymerized,in addition to merely being ionically crosslinked. Covalentpolymerization can be carried out according to the invention using UV orvisible light, so that the polymerization is specific, localized andrapid. Therefore, the detrimental effects of capsule instability on theencapsulated biologically active material, as well as on the recipient,when capsules are introduced into the body under physiologicalconditions (i.e., the loss of immunoprotection for the encapsulatedbiologically active material and the induction of fibrosis) areminimized.

Microcapsules or macrocapsules prepared by the invention process areuseful for a variety of therapeutic applications, such as theencapsulation of islets of Langerhans for the treatment of diabetes;encapsulation of dopamine secreting cells for the treatment ofParkinsons disease; encapsulation of hepatocytes for the treatment ofliver dysfunction; encapsulation of hemoglobin to create artificialblood; encapsulation of biological materials for diagnostic purposes;encapsulation of biological materials for in vivo evaluation of theeffects of such biological materials on an organism, and conversely, theeffects of the organism on the materials; encapsulation of tumor cellsfor evaluation of chemotherapeutic agents; encapsulation of humanT-lymphoblastoid cells sensitive to the cytopathic effects of HIV; andthe like.

The invention compositions are also useful for the preparation of a drugdelivery vehicle for the measured release of therapeutic agents; for theencapsulation of biomedical devices for implantation (to increase thestability and biocompatibility of the devices); for the preparation ofmaterials which prevent adhesion; for the preparation of bioadhesives;for the preparation of dressings useful in wound healing; and the like.

In another aspect of the present invention, there is provided aretrievable system for microencapsulated cells, whereinmicroencapsulated cells (made in accordance with the present invention)are disposed in a "tea bag," tube or cylinder which may also be madefrom the materials of the present invention. The retrievable systempermits diffusion of the biologically active material provided or madetherewithin, provides biocompatibility with a host in which the systemis disposed, and retrievability of the system, while providingimmunoprotection of the biomaterial within the retrievable system.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Starting with either a naturally occurring or synthetic (chemicallymodified and/or commercially available) polysaccharide, lipid orpolycation, it has been discovered that such materials can be modifiedto impart a functionality capable of covalent crosslinking by freeradical polymerization. Such free radical polymerization may beinitiated by light or other forms of energy using appropriateinitiators. While most of the examples herein refer tophotopolymerization, a person skilled in the art will recognize thatother methods of initiating polymerization are possible includingthermal, ultrasonic, gamma radiation, etc., in the presence ofappropriate initiators. Commensurate with the scope of the presentinvention, such modified biocompatible materials capable of undergoingfree radical polymerization have the formula:

    A--X

wherein A is selected from a polysaccharide, lipid, or polycation, X isa moiety containing a carbon-carbon double bond or triple bond capableof free radical polymerization; and A and X are linked covalentlythrough linkages selected from ester, ether, thioether, disulfide,amide, imide, secondary amines, tertiary amines, direct carbon-carbon(C--C) linkages, sulfate esters, sulfonate esters, phosphate esters,urethanes, carbonates, and the like.

As employed herein, ester linkages refer to a structure for linking A toX of either ##STR1## ether linkages refer to a structure for linking Ato X of --O--, thioether linkages refer to a structure for linking A toX of --S--, disulfide linkages refer to a structure for linking A to Xof --S--S--, amide linkages refer to a structure for linking A to X ofeither ##STR2## imide linkages refer to a structure for linking A to Xof ##STR3## secondary or tertiary amine linkages for covalently linkingA to X refer to

    --N(H)-- or --N(R)--;

direct carbon-carbon linkages refer to a structure for linking A to Xof--C--C--; sulphonate and sulphate ester linkages for covalentlylinking A to X refer, respectively, to ##STR4## phosphate ester linkagesfor covalently linking A to X refer to ##STR5## urethane linkages forcovalently linking A to X refer to ##STR6## carbonate linkages forcovalently linking A to X refer to ##STR7##

The polymerizable moiety "X" employed in the practice of the presentinvention can vary widely. As a minimum, X must contain at least onecarbon-carbon double bond, wherein the double bond(s) provided by X arecapable of undergoing free radical polymerization. Thus, unsaturatedcompounds where the double bond(s) are electronically non-reactive withfree radicals, or where the double bonds are sterically inaccessible tothe growing polymer chain are outside the scope of the presentinvention. X will typically be a moiety with a backbone having in therange of about 2 up to 30 atoms. While the backbone is typicallycomposed primarily of carbon atoms, it may also include such heteroatomsas nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and the like. Preferably, X will have inthe range of about 2 up to 20 atoms, with a backbone having in the rangeof about 2 up to 10 atoms being the presently most preferred. Speciessuch as the poly(alpha, beta-ethylenically unsaturated) isocyanatesdescribed by Nahm in U.S. Pat. No. 4,861,629, the methylol amidesdescribed by Symes et al., in U.S. Pat. No. 4,778,880, and the cinnamoylester described in Japanese publication J5 4128,482 (Agency of Ind. Sci.Tech.), however, are not desirable choices as sources for the radical X.

Polysaccharides and polycations are generally insoluble in organicsolvents, thus limiting the ability to modify these materials. Oneaspect of the present invention involves the modification of thesematerials by covalent bonding with certain hydrophobic moieties (e.g.,polyethylene glycols) which permits these materials to be solubilized ina variety of organic solvents.

Accordingly, another embodiment of the present invention is a modifiedbiocompatible material which is soluble in organic solvents, and whichis capable of undergoing free radical polymerization, said modifiedmaterial having the formula:

    Y--A--X

wherein A is a polysaccharide, polycation, or lipid; X is a moietycontaining a carbon-carbon double bond or triple bond capable of freeradical polymerization (as described above), A and X are linkedcovalently as described above, Y is selected from alkylene glycols,polyalkylene glycols, or hydrophobic onium cations (e.g.,tributylammonium iodide, tetrabutylammonium iodide,tetrabutylphosphonium iodide, and the like), and A and Y are linkedthrough any one of the above described covalent linkages. In addition,where Y is an onium cation, A and Y can be linked through the followingionic bond: ##STR8## wherein Q is nitrogen or phosphorus, and R ishydrogen, an alkyl radical, an aryl radical, an alkaryl radical, or anaralkyl radical.

The process of synthesizing the polymerizable biocompatible materialcomprises chemically modifying biocompatible material selected from alipid, polycation or polysaccharide having a reactive functionalitythereon, and then contacting the resulting modified biocompatiblematerial with a free radical initiating system under free radicalproducing conditions. Reactive functionalities contemplated includehydroxyl, carboxyl, primary or secondary amine, aldehyde, ketone orester groups. These groups are required in order to introduce at thesesites, the appropriate polymerizable substituent.

Examples of biocompatible materials include polysaccharides such asalginate, high M-content alginates, polymannuronic acid,polymannuronates, hyaluronic acid, chitosan, chitin, cellulose, starch,glycogen, guar gum, locust bean gum, dextran, levan, inulin,cyclodextran, agarose, xanthan gum, carageenan, heparin, pectin, gellangum, scleroglucan, and the like; polycations such as polyamino acidse.g., polyhistidine, polylysine, polyornithine, polyarginine,polyalanine-polylysine, poly(histidine, glutamicacid)-polyalanine-polylysine, poly(phenylalanine, glutamicacid)-polyalanine-polylysine, poly(tyrosine, glutamicacid)-polyalanine-polylysine, collagen, gelatin, and the like!; randomcopolymers of: arginine with tryptophan, tyrosine, or serine; glutamicacid with lysine; glutamic acid with lysine, ornithine, or mixturesthereof; and the like; polymers containing primary amine groups,secondary amine groups, tertiary amine groups or pyridinyl nitrogen(s),such as polyethyleneimine, polyallylamine, polyetheramine,polyvinylpyridine, and the like; and lipids such asphosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol,phosphatidylglycerol, dilaurylphosphatidic acid, dipalmitoylphosphatidyl glycerol, and the like.

A primary requirement of the polymerizable substituent is the presenceof moieties containing carbon-carbon double bonds (C═C) which arepolymerizable with free radicals generated by suitable initiator(s)e.g., an initiator system useful for UV and visible lightpolymerization. Examples of moieties containing such carbon-carbondouble bonds are alkenoic acids (such as acrylic acid, methacrylic acid,and the like), as well as their corresponding acid chlorides (such asacryloyl chloride, methacryloyl chloride, and the like) andcorresponding acid anhydrides (such as acrylic anhydride, methacrylicanhydride, and the like), alkenols (such as allyl alcohol, and thelike), alkenyl halides (such as allyl chloride, and the like),organometallic alkenyl compounds (such as vinyl magnesium bromide), andthe like.

A variety of free radical initiators, as can readily be identified bythose of skill in the art, can be employed in the practice of thepresent invention. Thus, photoinitiators, thermal initiators, and thelike, can be employed. For example, suitable UV initiators include2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenyl acetophenone and its water soluble derivatives,benzophenone and its water soluble derivatives, benzil and its watersoluble derivatives, thioxanthone and its water soluble derivatives, andthe like. For visible light polymerization, a system of dye (also knownas initiator or photosensitizer) and cocatalyst (also known ascosynergist, activator, initiating intermediate, quenching partner, orfree radical generator) are used. Examples of suitable dyes are ethyleosin, eosin, erythrosin, riboflavin, fluorscein, rose bengal, methyleneblue, thionine, and the like; examples of suitable cocatalysts aretriethanolamine, arginine, methyldiethanol amine, triethylamine, and thelike. A small amount of a comonomer can optionally be added to thecrosslinking reaction to increase the polymerization rates. Examples ofsuitable comonomers include vinyl pyrrolidinone, acrylamide,methacrylamide, acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, sodium acrylate, sodiummethacrylate, hydroxyethyl acrylate, hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA),ethylene glycol diacrylate, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate,pentaerythritol triacrylate, pentaerythritol trimethacrylate,trimethylol propane triacrylate, trimethylol propane trimethacrylate,tripropylene glycol diacrylate, tripropylene glycol dimethacrylate,glyceryl acrylate, glyceryl methacrylate, and the like.

A particularly preferred embodiment of the present invention is amodified alginate capable of being polymerized and ionicallycrosslinked. Alginate may be modified so as to produce the compound A--Xwhere A is a naturally occurring or synthetic modified form of alginate,X is a moiety containing a C═C or C.tbd.C capable of undergoing freeradical polymerization (as described above), and A and X are linkedcovalently as described above; or alginate can be modified so as toproduce the compound Y--A--X where Y is an alkylene glycol or apolyalkylene glycol or a hydrophobic onium cation. By attaching X toalginate via the OH group thereof, or by varying the degrees ofsubstitution of the alginate COOH group with X, a novel material can beobtained which possesses the dual capacity for undergoing both ionic andcovalent crosslinking. Furthermore, increased negative charge density ofthis modified alginate can be achieved by sulfonation of naturallyoccurring or synthetic modified forms of alginate (A_(s)). Thus, A_(s)is a novel form of alginate with increased negative charge density. Thissulfonation step is possible following modification of the alginate tothe form A--X as described above, resulting in a polymerizable,ionically crosslinkable, highly negatively charged form A_(s) --X; inaddition, Y--A--X alginate, i.e., the organic soluble polymerizablealginate, can be further modified by sulfonation, obtaining yet anothernovel form of alginate designated Y--A_(s) --X.

The sequence of modification can have several variations, all resultingin novel alginate derivatives (e.g., As, A--X, A_(s) --X, Y--A--X, andY--A_(s) --X).

A presently preferred polysaccharide of the invention is a modifiedalginate capable of being crosslinked by free radical polymerization,wherein the modified alginate is made by reacting a chemical compoundwhich includes moieties containing carbon-carbon double bonds which arecapable of free radical polymerization, wherein the unsaturated chemicalcompounds are substituted at the carboxyl or hydroxyl group of thealginate. Exemplary unsaturated chemical compounds with which thealginate is reacted include acryloyl chloride, methacryloyl chloride,acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, allyl alcohol, allyl chloride, acrylicanhydride, methacrylic anhydride, vinyl magnesium bromide, and the like.Especially preferred modified alginates are selected from an alkenylester of alginate, alkenyl ether of alginate or carbonyl substitutedalkenyl alginate. Optionally, prior to modification of the alginate withthe unsaturated chemical compound, the alginate is solubilized in anorganic solvent by covalent linkage to polyethylene glycol. Examples ofthe resulting modified alginates include alkenyl esters of PEG-alginate,alkenyl ethers of PEG-alginate and carbonyl substituted alkenylPEG-alginates.

In one aspect, not all carboxyl groups of the above-described alginateare substituted, therefore, the alginate may subsequently be ionicallycrosslinked as well as covalently polymerized. In another aspect, noneof the carboxyl groups of the above-described alginate are substituted,therefore, the alginate may be subsequently ionically crosslinked aswell as covalently polymerized.

The process of making microcapsules using the above-described novelbiocompatible materials, e.g., the above-described forms of alginate(e.g., As, A--X, A_(s) --X, Y--A--X, and Y--A_(s) --X) result incapsules with increased stability and biocompatibility. Microcapsulescould be formulated by the air-jet droplet generation technique (Lim &Sun, 1980 (22.)); by co-axial oil extrusion, or by oil emulsification.Gelling polysaccharides (such as the above-described alginate materials,A--X, Y--A--X, A_(s) --X, and Y--A_(s) --X) afford the unique ability togenerate microcapsules by ionic crosslinkage using divalent cations(Ca⁺⁺, Ba⁺⁺ Sr⁺⁺, etc.) and then polymerizing the thus formed gel beadby release of free radicals using a light source (UV, visible or laser).The capsules formed in this manner are more stable, and also provide aunique form of drug delivery vehicle whereby ionically bound drugs ordrugs entrapped in the polysaccharide matrix may be leached from the gelsphere by ionic exchange or passive diffusion over a concentrationgradient.

It is another embodiment of this invention to increase capsule stabilityby increasing ionic bond strength within the capsule core by the use ofbarium in combination with calcium in combination with gellingpolysaccharide materials modified according to the invention to suchforms as A--X, Y--A--X, A_(s) --X, Y--A_(s) --X.

Compositions of the present invention can be crosslinked so as to retainany one of a variety of forms, e.g., gels, microcapsules, macrocapsules,and the like. Gels of a variety of shapes and sizes can be preparedmerely by subjecting invention compositions to ionic and/or covalentcrosslinking conditions. Such gels can optionally be prepared in thepresence of one or more biologically active compounds, so as to providean immunoprotective coating for the biologically active material. Gelsprepared in the absence of any specific biologically active additivesare also useful for a variety of purposes, such as, for example, as awound dressing, providing a protective barrier for injured skin.

Microcapsules prepared in accordance with the present invention comprisebiologically active material encapsulated in the above-describedbiocompatible crosslinkable material, wherein the microcapsule has avolume in which the largest physical dimension of the capsule, includingthe contents thereof, does not exceed 1 mm.

Macrocapsules prepared in accordance with the present invention comprisebiologically active material encapsulated in the above-describedbiocompatible crosslinkable material, wherein the macrocapsule has avolume in which the largest physical dimension is greater than 1 mm.Macrocapsules can contain "free" (i.e., unmodified by any coating) cellsor groups of cells therein. Alternatively, macrocapsules may containcells or groups of cells which are themselves encapsulated withinmicrocapsules.

Biologically active materials contemplated for encapsulation (to producemicrocapsules or macrocapsules) according to the present inventioninclude individual living cells or groups of living cells such as, forexample, islets of Langerhans, dopamine secreting cells (for treatmentof Parkinsonism), nerve growth factor secreting cells (for the treatmentof Alzheimer's disease), hepatocytes (for treatment of liverdysfunction), adrenaline/angiotensin secreting cells (for regulation ofhypo/hypertension), parathyroid cells (for replacing thyroid function),norepinephrine/metencephalin secreting cells (for the control of pain)!;pharmacologically active drugs; diagnostic agents, and the like.

The invention will now be described in greater detail by reference tothe following non-limiting examples.

EXAMPLE 1 Preparation of Covalently Crosslinkable Polysaccharide (i)

Sodium alginate or alginic acid (M_(n) =175000) was dried in a vacuumoven for 24 hours at 60° C. The dry powder was suspended indichloromethane dried with 4 A molecular sieves (acetone, benzene,toluene, and other dry organic solvents may also be used) at aconcentration of 10 g in 100 ml. A two fold excess of acryloyl chloridewas used (1.64 ml) and a base, triethyl amine (2.8 ml) was added toremove HCl upon formation. The reaction was carried in a round bottomedflask under argon with constant reflux for 24 hours. The reactionmixture was filtered to remove the alginate acrylate while the filtratecontaining triethylamine hydrochloride was discarded. The substitutedalginate was washed twice with ethanol and dried in a vacuum oven. Toobtain an alginate with a lower degree of substitution, correspondinglylower amounts of acryloyl chloride were used in the reaction medium. Ahigh G-content alginate (G content 64%) was used for the abovemodification scheme. Other alginates with varying G contents may beused.

EXAMPLE 2 Preparation of Covalently Crosslinkable Polysaccharide (ii)

An alternative technique of reacting acryloyl chloride to alginate wasdeveloped in which an ionically crosslinked gel in water was subject tostepwise solvent exchange with tetrahydrofuran (THF, dimethyl sulfoxidemay also be used). Alginate gel beads (approx. 400 um diameter) weresequentially transferred to solutions containing water/THF in the ratios0.75/0.25, 0.5/0.5, 0.25/0.75, and 0/1. The beads were allowed toequilibrate in each solution for 30 minutes before being transferred tothe next solution. Three exchanges with 100% THF were done to ensureremoval of all water in the system. The purpose of using gel beads inthe reaction was to provide a freely diffusible matrix to ensurepermeability to reactants. The reaction was performed as in Example 1,the beads separated by sieving, washed with THF, and the THF thenexchanged for water. The beads were then dissolved by exposure to sodiumcitrate at a concentration of 50 mM, and the resulting solution dialysedagainst deionized water for 24 hours, then freeze dried to obtain themodified alginate.

EXAMPLE 3 Preparation of Covalently Crosslinkable Polysaccharide

The carboxyl groups on the alginate molecules were targeted foresterification by allyl alcohol. 2 g of alginate were dissolved in 100mlof water. The solution was acidified to pH 3.2-3.5 with concentratedsulfuric acid. At this pH, approximately 50% of all the carboxyl groupson the polymer were protonated and therefore susceptible toesterification. An eight fold excess (molar basis) of allyl alcohol wasadded to the acidified solution and the reaction mixture refluxedovernight. The mixture was then neutralized with sodium hydroxide andadded to an excess of ethanol (or tetrahydrofuran) to precipitate theproduct. The precipitate was washed twice with ethanol and dried in avacuum oven. Alternately, the hydroxyl groups on alginate could betargeted for esterification by using acrylic acid. Essentially the sameprocedure was followed for this reaction.

The esterification reaction is an equilibrium reaction and hence doesnot go to completion. In order to drive the reaction toward theproducts, an excess of one of the reactants was used. Also, afterequilibrium was reached, water formed in the reaction was continuallywithdrawn by allowing the mixture to boil for a few hours withoutrefluxing.

EXAMPLE 4 Preparation of Covalently Crosslinkable Polysaccharide(iv)--Using Organic Soluble Alginates

A commercially available esterified alginate, propylene glycol alginate,is more hydrophobic and hence soluble in organic solvents likedimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), acetone, dimethyl formamide (DMF), dimethylacetamide (DMA), etc. The reaction in Example 1 was performed using theorganic soluble alginate in a homogeneous rather than a heterogeneoussystem. In contrast to the esterification reaction in Example 3,reaction with the acid chloride is not an equilibrium reaction andessentially goes to completion. This technique allowed for a greatercontrol over the degree of substitution of alginate by polymerizablegroups.

Other organic soluble alginates suitable for covalent attachment ofpolymerizable groups include the relatively hydrophobic esters preparedby the technique described by Della Valle (1987a (7.)). Della Valledescribes a method of ion exchange to replace cations such as sodium insodium alginate with large hydrophobic cations such as thetetrabutylammonium cation. The tetrabutylammonium alginate thus formedis fairly hydrophobic and may be dissolved in an organic solvent such asDMSO, DMF or DMAC. This hydrophobic salt can then be used as a reactionintermediate to produce a polymerizable alginate. Thus modifiednaturally occurring alginates may be used to synthesize covalentlycrosslinkable derivatives.

EXAMPLE 5 Preparation of Covalently Crosslinkable Polysaccharide(v)--Inducing Solubility In Organic Solvents--Modification withPolyethylene Glycol (PEG)

PEG has the unique property of being soluble in organic solvents as wellas in aqueous media. If a sufficient quantity of PEG can be covalentlyattached to the polysaccharide, organic solubility will result. Such atechnique has been used to make the insoluble polysaccharide chitosansoluble in many solvents (Harris et al., 1984 (17.)). The grafting ofPEG to chitosan was through amine groups on chitosan using the PEGaldehyde derivative. The methods outlined below utilize a differentchemistry. In addition to increasing organic solubility, PEG has beenused to make materials more biocompatible (Desai and Hubbell, 1991(10.); Abuchowski et al., 1977 (1.)). A number of chemical methods maybe utilized to covalently attach PEG to alginate. These are outlinedbelow.

A standard esterification reaction was utilized with reaction conditionssimilar to the one described in Example 3. PEG has hydroxyl groups(--OH) which can be esterified with the carboxyl groups (--COOH) on thepolysaccharide to obtain an ester link. An excess of PEG (mol. wt. 10000was used; other molecular weight PEGs can also be used; a monofunctionalPEG such as monomethoxy PEG may also be used) was used in the reactionmixture. After 12 hours the reaction reaches equilibrium, the reactionproduct was precipitated in tetrahydrofuran (or other suitable solvent)and dried under vacuum. The dried product (PEG substitutedpolysaccharide) was reacted with acryloyl chloride according to Example1 or 4 in organic solvent in a homogeneous system due to organicsolubility afforded by attachment of PEG. A derivative of PEG, i.e., PEGcarboxylic acid, prepared by the techniques described by Harris (1985(16.)) may also be esterified with hydroxyl groups on the polysaccharideto obtain its PEG derivative.

Alternatively, PEG epoxide (or glycidyl ether of PEG), obtained by thereaction of PEG with epichlorohydrin, can be reacted with apolysaccharide in basic conditions for 24 hours to achieve PEG graftingas described by Pitha et al. (1979 (26.)) who bound a PEG derivative todextran. Other alternative routes may also be conceived based on thechemistry of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups which are present on thepolysaccharides. Harris (1985 (16.)) has an excellent review of PEGchemistry from which alternative schemes may be derived.

Having obtained an organic soluble polysaccharide, the reaction inExample 1 may be used to make it photopolymerizable.

EXAMPLE 6 Preparation of Covalently Crosslinkable Polysaccharide (vi)Preparation of the Vinyl Ether

A PEG-modified organic soluble alginate prepared as outlined in Example5 was dissolved in dry dimethyl sulfoxide. A nitrogen atmosphere wasmaintained in the reaction vessel. The sodium salt (alkoxide) of thealginate was prepared by addition of sodium naphthalide till the greencolor persisted. The temperature was raised to 100° C. and acetylene gaswas bubbled through the reaction vessel at a known rate. The reactionwas stopped after 2 hours, the reaction mixture cooled, the vinylsubstituted polymer precipitated in an excess of ether and dried in avacuum oven. The degree of vinyl substitution varied depending on thelength of reaction. This resulted in a vinyl substituent linked to thealginate through an ether linkage as opposed to the examples above whichgenerated an ester linkage. This method was adapted from Mathias et al.(1982 (23.)), who used it to synthesize divinyl ethers ofoligooxyethylenes.

EXAMPLE 7 Alternative Routes For Preparation of Covalently CrosslinkablePolysaccharide

Organic soluble alginates (e.g., PEG-alinates) may be reacted to formthe alkoxide (as in Example 6) followed by addition of vinyl halides orallyl halides to produce the vinyl and allyl ethers of alginate whichare readily polymerizable.

Alternately, organic soluble alginate esters after formation of thealkoxide may be reacted with Grignard reagents such as vinyl magnesiumbromide or allyl magnesium bromide in scrupulously dry conditions toform the corresponding vinyl and allyl derivatives linked directly tothe carbonyl carbon of the ester.

EXAMPLE 8 Synthesis of Acrylic Anhydride

Acrylic acid (0.2 mol) was reacted with aceticanhydride (0.1 mol) at atemperature of 60°-70° C. for 2 hours. Finely powdered copper (0.1 g)was added as a polymerization inhibitor. The mixture was then fractiondistilled and three separate fractions collected. The first fractiongave predominantly acetic acid (a reaction product), the second fractiongave a mixture of acetic acid and acrylic acid, and the last fraction(with a boiling point of approximately 65° C. at 10 mm Hg) waspredominantly acrylic anhydride. Purity of the fractions was determinedby Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry. Yield: 60%.

EXAMPLE 9 Synthesis of Acrylate Ester of Sodium Alginate

Sodium alginate (5 g) was dissolved in 500 ml of water and cooled to 4°C. in an ice bath. Acrylic anhydride (4 ml) was added drop by drop withconstant stirring to the cold alginate solution and the pH maintained at9.0 by addition of suitable quantity of 50% NaOH. The stirring wascontinued for 24 hours at a temperature of 4° C. The reaction productwas precipitated in 100% ethanol, filtered, washed 3 times with ethanol.The product was then dissolved in water and dialyzed against deionizedwater through a dialysis membrane with a molecular weight cutoff of12000-14000 for 24 hours. The dialysed product was freeze dried toobtain the pure acrylate ester of sodium alginate. Yield: 3.5 g. Theester formation by this method was targeted to the secondary hydroxylgroups present on the monomeric units, i.e., mannuronic acid andguluronic acid present in the alginate molecule. Those of skill in theart recognize that the degree of substitution of the alginate can bevaried by use of different ratios of alginate to anhydride in theabove-described reaction.

EXAMPLE 10 Synthesis of Chitosan Acrylate Derivative

Chitosan (5 g) was dissolved in 500 ml of 1% acetic acid and theprocedure in Example 9 was repeated to produce the acrylate derivativeof chitosan. The pH in the initial stages of addition of acrylicanhydride was maintained below pH 7. Chitosan has in its monomeric unittwo hydroxyl groups, one of which is a primary hydroxyl and another thatis a secondary hydroxyl, and a primary amino group. All of these arereactive towards the anhydride in the order of reactivity amine>primaryhydroxyl>secondary hydroxyl.

EXAMPLE 11 Synthesis of Allyl Ether of Sodium Alginate

Sodium alginate (5 g) was dissolved in 500 ml of water. 2 ml of 50% NaOHwere added and the mixture cooled to 4° C. in an ice bath. Allylchloride (10 ml) was added and the mixture stirred and maintained at 4°C. for 24 hours. The reaction product was precipitated in 100% ethanol,filtered, washed 3 times with ethanol. The product was then dissolved inwater and dialyzed against deionized water through a dialysis membranewith a molecular weight cutoff of 12000-14000 for 24 hours. The dialysedproduct was freeze dried to obtain the pure acrylate ester of sodiumalginate. Yield: 3.5 g. The ether formation by this method was targetedto the secondary hydroxyl groups present on the monomeric units, i.e.,mannuronic acid and guluronic acid present in the alginate molecule. Asnoted above, the degree of substitution can readily be varied.

EXAMPLE 12 Synthesis of Chitosan Allyl Derivative

Chitosan (5 g) was dissolved in 500 ml of 1% acetic acid and cooled to4° C. on an ice bath. Allyl chloride (10 ml) was added and the mixturestirred and maintained at 4° C. for 24 hours. The allyl derivative ofchitosan was isolated by a procedure similar to the one above in Example11. Substitution of the allyl group is possible once again at all of thethree possible sites described in Example 10. Reactivity of each site isalso in the same order.

EXAMPLE 13 Increasing Charge Density of Polysaccharides by Sulfonation

Addition of sulfonic acid (--SO₃ H) groups to the ring structure ofalginates is a method of increasing negative charge density since theacidic group is dissociated at neutral pH. This has applications inincreasing the ionic crosslinking capabilities of the alginate (or otherpolysaccharide) resulting in a more stable gel structure.

Naturally occurring and synthetic alginates, as well as PEG-modifiedalginates, could be linked covalently to the sulfonic acid groups. Thesubstitution occurs on the hydroxyls present in the alginate structure.If organic insoluble alginates are used, the reaction is heterogeneous,while a homogeneous reaction is possible with organic soluble alginates.

The alginate (natural or modified) is dissolved (or suspended) in drydimethyl sulfoxide (or other suitable solvent). A suitable base, e.g.,triethyl amine is added (to complex the liberated HCl in the reaction),along with chlorosulfonic acid, which attacks the hydroxyl groups of thealginate. The degree of substitution can be manipulated (especially inhomogeneous conditions) by addition of suitable amount of chlorosulfonicacid. The reaction is typically carried out at 60°-70° C. overnight. Thesubstituted alginate is separated by precipitation with excess ether(for organic soluble alginates) or by filtration (if organic insoluble).The product is dried in a vacuum oven.

EXAMPLE 14 Preparation of Chemically Crosslinkable Polycations

Polycations such as polylysine, polyornithine, polyethyleneimine,polyetheramine, polyamideamine, polyvinylpyridine, etc., may be modifiedto make them photopolymerizable. All the above mentioned polycationshave primary or secondary amine groups in their structures. Acidchlorides like acryloyl chloride react readily with amines to form anamide linkage (Morrison and Boyd, 1973 (25.)). The polycations weremostly obtained in their salt form (hydrochloride or hydrobromide) whichwere water soluble. A number of these polycations are insoluble inorganic solvents. Reactions to make the polycations polymerizable can becarried out in aqueous medium by reaction with anhydrides, employing thesame method described above for polysaccharides. The reactions can alsobe carried out in organic solvents if the polycations are first modifiedto render them organic soluble. In order to solubilize them in organicsand thereby facilitate a reaction with acryloyl chloride to produce apolymerizable derivative, they were reacted with PEG.

Several techniques could be used for covalent attachment of PEG to theamine groups on the polycations. One technique used was the activationof PEG with 1,1-carbonyldiimidazole (CDI). This involved the dissolutionof vacuum dried PEG in dry dichloromethane (or other solvent) andaddition of CDI. The reaction was carried at room temperature overnight,followed by precipitation of the PEG derivative in ether. The derivativewas dried under vacuum. Grafting of CDI activated PEG to polylysine wasperformed in aqueous borate buffer at pH 9 for 24 hours. The reactionmixture was dialyzed against deionized water for 24 hours and theresultant solution freeze-dried to obtain the PEG grafted PLL. The graftcopolymer was dissolved in a suitable solvent and reacted with acryloylchloride (as in Example 1) to obtain the polymerizable product.

Other derivatives of PEG that react with amine groups may also beutilized. Examples of such derivatives are described in the paper byHarris (1985 (16.)).

EXAMPLE 15 Preparation of Chemically Crosslinkable Lipids

Lipids used in the formation of liposomes such asphosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol,phosphatidylglycerol, dilaurylphosphatidic dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol, etc., have in their structures a hydroxyl group or an aminegroup which can be reacted to acryloyl chloride or other suitable agentto make these lipids photocrosslinkable. The general method for thisreaction is described in Example 1. The preparation of a crosslinkablelipid would greatly enhance the stability of liposomes in physiologicalconditions. These lipids can be rendered polymerizable by the samemethods described above for polysaccharides and polycations. PEG couldalso be attached to these lipids to enhance their solubility in organicsolvents and thereby facilitate the reaction with acryloyl chloride. Theattachment of PEG was done by the method outlined in Example 5 and thenfollowed by reaction with acryloyl chloride.

EXAMPLE 16 Laser/Visible Light Photopolymerization To ProducePolysaccharide Gels And Microspheres

In recent years considerable interest has been expressed in the use oflasers for polymerization processes (Wu, 1990 (31.)). Thesepolymerizations are extremely fast and may be completed in milliseconds(Decker and Moussa, 1989 (6.); Hoyle, et al., 1989 (18.); Eaton, 1986(13.)). It was desired to use these techniques for the formation ofcovalently crosslinked alginate microcapsules containing pancreaticislets. Substituted alginates prepared by the techniques outlined inExamples 1 through 7 and 9 through 13 were dissolved in aqueousbicarbonate buffered saline (or other buffer) at pH 7.4 at aconcentration of 0.1-10% (w/v). A free radical initiating systemcomprising a dye and a cocatalyst were used to initiate polymerization.The dye (ethyl eosin; 0.01 μM up to 0.1M), a cocatalyst(triethanolamine; 0.01 μM up to 0.1M), and comonomer, which increasesthe rate of polymerization (vinyl pyrrolidinone; 0.001 to 10%) wereadded to the solution, which was protected from light until thephotopolymerization was carried out.

Two different techniques to produce microspheres were used: one involvedemulsification with an oil (silicone oil) and the second was a coaxialextrusion from a hypodermic needle (20G to 26G) with the monomersolution surrounded by a sheath of flowing silicone oil in glass tubing.The resultant microspheres were exposed to laser radiation from an argonion laser at a wavelength of 514 nm at powers between 10 mW to 3 W. Anexposure time as low as 100 msec was found to be adequate forpolymerization and microsphere formation. Photopolymerization may alsobe performed with a mercury arc lamp which has a fairly strong emissionaround 514 nm. Visible radiation between wavelengths of 400-700 nm havebeen determined to be nontoxic to living cells (Karu, 1990 (20.); Dupuyet al., 1988 (12.)). The use of wavelength specific chromophores aspolymerization initiators ensured that they were the only species in thepolymer/cell suspension that absorbed the incident radiation.

Polycations and lipids may also be photopolymerized using thistechnique.

EXAMPLE 17 UV Photopolymerization to Produce Polysaccharide Gel andMicrospheres

A different initiating system from the one employed in Example 16 wasused to produce alginate gels. A UV photoinitiator,2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenyl acetophenone, was added to a solution ofsubstituted alginate (prepared as described in any one of Examples 1through 7 or 9 through 13) in aqueous buffer at a concentration of1000-1500 ppm. This solution was exposed to long wave UV radiation froma 100 watt UV lamp. The time required for gellation varied between 5 to20 seconds depending on the concentrations of initiator and addition ofother polymerizable comonomers such as vinyl pyrrolidinone (0.001 to10%). Gel microspheres could be prepared, for example, by theemulsification technique described in Example 19. The short-termexposure of islet cells to long wave UV radiation was determined to haveno cytotoxicity. A UV laser may also be used for thephotopolymerization.

Polycations and lipids can also be photopolymerized using thistechnique.

EXAMPLE 18 Visible Light Photopolymerization of Alginate and ChitosanDerivatives

The polysaccharide derivatives prepared by the techniques outlined abovewere dissolved in water at a concentration of 2%. A photoinitiator(ethyl eosin; 0.01 μM to 0.1M), a cocatalyst (triethanolamine; 0.01 μMto 0.1M), and optionally, comonomer (1-vinyl 2-pyrrolidinone; 0.001 to10%, when present) were added to the solution, which was protected fromlight until the photopolymerization reaction was carried out.

A small quantity of the prepared solution was placed in a test tube andexposed to visible radiation either from an argon ion laser at awavelength of 514 nm at powers between 10 mW to 3 W, or a 100 wattmercury arc lamp which has a fairly strong emission around 514 nm. Thegelling time was noted and found to be extremely rapid with the laser(order of milliseconds for acrylate derivatives) and fairly rapid withthe mercury lamp (order of seconds for acrylate derivatives) and variedwith the concentrations of polymer initiator, cocatalyst, and comonomersin the system.

In general the gelling time of the acrylate derivatives (in order ofseconds) was faster than that of the allyl derivatives (order ofminutes).

EXAMPLE 19 Emulsification Technique to Produce Microcapsules

Islets were suspended in a polymerizable mixture of alginates containingthe appropriate initiating systems as described in Examples 16 and 17above at a concentration of approximately 5000-15000 islets per ml. Thewell mixed suspension was added into a sterile vessel containingsterilized medical grade silicone oil (Dow Corning) and emulsified byrapid stirring. This resulted in the formation of spherical droplets ofpolymerizable solution containing islet cells. The stirring suspensionwas exposed to either visible light (from a high pressure Hg lamp, or alaser) or to UV light depending on the initiating system used. Gellationof the droplets to form microcapsules occurred rapidly, typically inless than 30 seconds. An aqueous physiologic buffer was added to the oiland the microcapsules preferentially partitioned into the aqueous phase.The aqueous phase was separated in an apparatus similar to a separatingfunnel and the microcapsules transferred to culture medium.

EXAMPLE 20 Extrusion in a Two Phase Coaxial Flow System

A coaxial flow system designed to polymerize droplets containing cellssuch as islets (to form microcapsules) has been described in theliterature (Dupuy et al., 1988 (12.)). This device allows the dropletscontaining cells to be polymerized as they are formed. The body of thedevice is fabricated from borosilicate glass. The apparatus comprises aneedle, preferably a hypodermic needle through which a monomer or cellsuspension is introduced. A port is the entrance for the shear fluid,which is silicone oil in the preferred embodiment. A stopper for thedevice body may be pressure fitted or in the preferred embodimentscrewed into the device housing. A compressible seal, which ispreferably a silicone rubber sealing plug, is provided for an airtightclosure. The housing may be a glass housing capable of permitting thetransmission of light, specifically laser light therethrough.Alternatively, the housing may be light opaque if it is provided with alight transmitting window so that the coated cells can be exposed tolaser light transmitted through the window.

The cell suspension is injected through a hypodermic needle ofappropriate gauge into a flowing silicone oil stream that surrounds theneedle. Droplets form as a result of surface tension effects and dropletsize may be controlled by appropriate selection of needle size, and flowrates of oil and aqueous (cell suspension) phases. The droplets form inthe vicinity of the injection point by breaking off from a jet of thepolymer solution containing the islets (or other cell type) and flowinginto a narrow glass capillary which serves as a window for incidence ofa narrow (0.5-5 mm diameter) laser beam. As the droplet passes throughthe laser beam, rapid gellation occurs as a result of free radicalgeneration due to presence of appropriate light absorbing dyes andcocatalysts and a polymeric crosslinked capsule is formed around thecells. The exposure time is very short, of the order of milliseconds andcan be accurately manipulated by adjusting the flow rate of the oilphase. That the microcapsules in oil are collected in a vessel andseparated as described in Example 13 above.

A piezoelectric transducer may be attached to the needle assembly tovibrate the needle at a known frequency. This enable the formation ofsmall droplets of controlled size.

EXAMPLE 21 Capsule Formation Using Ionic and Covalent Crosslinking

The polymerizable alginate generated by any of the techniques outlinedabove is a material having the capacity to be ionically crosslinked,while simultaneously, covalent crosslinking is also possible. Thisunique property of the modified alginate facilitates the generation of amicrocapsule by the conventional process (extrusion through a needlewith a coaxial air stream) of ionic crosslinking in a solutioncontaining multivalent cations. Microcapsule formation is carried outunder very mild entrapment conditions, which is highly desirable forhandling biologically active materials. Polymer can be readilyconcentrated in a spherical form about a core of entrapped biologicallyactive material (by ionically crosslinking the polymer, without the needfor emulsification, with consequent exposure of the biologically activematerial to oils, etc.). Further crosslinking of the capsule (by freeradical initiated polymerization) can then be carried out on the"pre-formed" capsule, thereby imparting additional strength to thecapsule.

The ionically crosslinked alginate can simultaneously or subsequently bephotocrosslinked (i.e., covalently crosslinked) by exposing theionically crosslinked alginate containing a suitable concentration ofdissolved photocatalysts (e.g., ethyl eosin; 0.01 μM-0.1M, triethanolamine; 0.01 μM-0.1M, and optional comonomers, e.g., vinyl pyrrolidinone,0.001-10%) to initiating irradiation, e.g., as provided by a highpressure mercury lamp. Alternatively, the alginate solution containingphotocatalysts can be covalently crosslinked first by exposure tosuitable light source, then ionically crosslinked by exposure to asolution of multivalent cations such as calcium. In the formation ofmicrocapsules, one or both of the components of the photoinitiatingsystem can be included in the bath providing the source of multivalentcations; or the ionically crosslinked gels can be transferred to a bathcontaining dissolved photocatalysts which are then allowed to diffuseinto the ionically crosslinked gel while being exposed to the initiatinglight source. By controlling the immersion time of the capsules in thephotoinitiator-containing solution, and thereby controlling the depth ofpenetration of initiators into the capsule (as a result of diffusion),during exposure to the light source, or following exposure to the lightsource, varying thicknesses of a polymerized shell on the microcapsulescan be achieved. If desired, the ionically crosslinked core can bedegelled without disrupting the capsule by exposure of the polymerizedcapsules to a buffered citrate solution. Preferred concentration rangesfor the various components of the photoinitiating system are ethyl eosin(5 μM-0.5 mM), triethanolamine (5 mM-0.1M), and 0.01-1% for comonomers(e.g., vinyl pyrrolidinone).

The unique dual property of this material, i.e., ionic and covalentcrosslinkability, allows the encapsulation of living cells to be carriedout in a very gentle environment, which ensures that capsule integritycan be maintained in an in vivo environment.

EXAMPLE 22 Dual Crosslinking Nature of Alginate Acrylates

The unique dual ability of invention compositions to undergo ionic aswell as covalent crosslinking is demonstrated herein employing thealginate acrylate prepared as described in Example 9. Thus, a solutionof alginate acrylate (2 wt %) in water with appropriate concentration ofphotoinitiators as described above was injected through a syringe into abath containing calcium ions. Droplets of the alginate were immediatelygelled by calcium ions on contact with the solution. The droplets weresimultaneously exposed to visible radiation in the range of 500-550 nmfrom a 100 watt mercury lamp with a bandpass filter. The beads wereexposed to the radiation for one minute following which they weretransferred to a solution containing sodium citrate (1M). Unmodifiedalginate gels produced by crosslinking with calcium only are rapidlydissolved in a solution containing citrate because of its calciumchelating properties. However, the alginate acrylate photopolymerizedgelled beads remained indefinitely stable in this solution, indicatingthe presence of covalent crosslinks as the result of polymerization.These covalent crosslinks help maintain the integrity of the gel despitethe reversal of the ionic crosslinks by calcium chelation.

EXAMPLE 23 Variation of Crosslink Density for Permeation Control ofDiffusible Species through Polysaccharide Gels

Alginates from Examples 1 through 7 and 9 through 13 can be produced atvarying levels of substitution of crosslinkable groups. Depending on theaverage distance between substitutions on the alginate polymer chain, amean `pore size` can be computed for the crosslinked alginate gel. Thusa high level of substitution would imply a small pore size or a lowmolecular weight cutoff, and vice versa. FITC-dextrans of varyingmolecular weights were immobilized in crosslinked alginate gels and thepermeability of various formulations tested by measuring the release ofdextran into the bulk solution. It was possible to design an alginategel with a given permeability characteristic by varying the level ofsubstitution of polymerizable groups on the alginate polymer.

EXAMPLE 24 Polysaccharides with Dual Ionic and Covalent CrosslinkCapabilities for Drug Release

The level of substitution of polymerizable groups targeted at thecarboxyl group on alginates could be controlled by addition of suitablequantities of these reagents. This would result in an alginate with somecarboxyl groups that were substituted with polymerizable moieties andavailable for covalent crosslinking, while the remainder would beavailable for ionic crosslinking. This resulted in a material that hadthe unique dual properties of being able to ionically crosslink and atthe same time being able to polymerize to generate covalent crosslinks.In addition to applications in cell encapsulation, applications of sucha material could be quite extensive as a drug delivery system whereinthe drug was ionically bound to the alginate or merely dissolved ordispersed while the matrix was covalently crosslinked and henceinsoluble. Drug release would occur by exchange of the drug underphysiological conditions with cations that diffused into the gel matrixor by simple diffusion across a concentration gradient.

Polymerizable substituents that were targeted selectively to thehydroxyl groups while leaving the carboxyls available for ionic linkagewould be as effective, if not more effective than the carboxylsubstituted alginates.

EXAMPLE 25 Encapsulation of Cells in Photocrosslinked PolysaccharideGels-Treatment of Enzyme/Hormone/Protein Deficiency States

Pancreatic Islets for Diabetes: Pancreatic islets isolated and purifiedby techniques described elsewhere (Soon-Shiong et al., 1990 (29.));Lanza et al., 1990 (21.)) were added to the photocrosslinkable alginatesolution containing dissolved photocatalysts in physiological buffer (asin Example 16) at a concentration of 5000-15000 islets per ml. The isletsuspension was then extruded in coaxial flow with air into a solution ofcalcium ions, or extruded in coaxial flow with oil or emulsified in oilto produce droplets of alginate containing islets.

The droplets were rapidly photocrosslinked by exposure to a laser sourceor arc lamp to produce insoluble microspheres varying in size between200 to 1000 um depending on the hydrodynamic conditions for dropletformation. The size and shape of the microspheres is dependent upon theextrusion rate and extruding capillary diameter. The encapsulated isletswere put into culture and tested for viability and function to prove theinnocuous nature of the polymerization.

As discussed above, several other disease states can also be treated byencapsulation of the appropriate cell types.

EXAMPLE 26 A Retrievable System for Implanted Microcapsules

Microcapsules generated by any of the techniques described above aredifficult to retrieve following peritoneal implantation due to theirsmall size (few 100 microns). A typical dosage in a dog involves theimplantation of approximately 30 ml of capsules which number inthousands. A retrievable system for microcapsules would be amacrocapsule (not necessarily spherical) containing within it atherapeutic dosage of microcapsules. Such a macrocapsule could befabricated from alginates and any of its derivatives describe above. Themicrocapsules are suspended in an alginate solution that may be gelledionically or covalently, or both, in order to obtain a gelled alginate(the macrocapsule) containing within it, the microcapsules. Such asystem of delivery is readily retrievable due to its physicaldimensions. An example of such a system would be a long thread of gelledalginate (the macrocapsule) containing within it, the macrocapsules. Thesuspension of microcapsules in a crosslinkable (ionically or covalently)alginate solution could be extruded through a syringe and the outflowingjet or cylindrical stream immediately gelled either ionically or byphotopolymerization. Dually crosslinkable alginates may also be utilizedin which the first step would involve extrusion into a solutioncontaining calcium ions (or other multivalent ions) followed bypolymerization very similar to that described in Example 15 above.Anyone skilled in the art will recognize that retrievable systems forimplanted cells or microcapsules could be devised using modifiedpolysaccharides other than alginates, as well as modified polycationsand lipids.

EXAMPLE 27 Drug/Enzyme Release from Polysaccharide Gels with Controlled`Pore Sizes`

By controlling the degree of substitution of crosslinkable groups on thealginate molecule it is possible to taylor a `pore size` within thecrosslinked gel. Knowing the molecular dimensions of drugs and enzymesthat may have therapeutic use, one could very easily synthesize analginate gel that would release the drug/enzyme molecules at a desiredrate. Examples of drug/enzyme/hormone therapy could include thetreatment of hemophilia by a sustained release of Factor VIII which isdeficient in hemophiliacs; the sustained release of human growthhormone; the sustained release of thyroid supplements or substitutes inpatients that have undergone thyroidectomies; the sustained release ofadrenal supplements or substitutes for replacement of adrenal function;the sustained release of estrogen for birth control.

EXAMPLE 28 Effects of Systemically Delivered Chemotherapeutic Agents onEncapsulated Cells and Tissues

The treatment of several diseases requires the in vitro culture ofbiopsied cells to test the effects of drugs that constitute potentialtreatments. Culturing these cells often takes several days and often,weeks may pass before an effective drug is found that affects thecultured cells in the desired fashion. A quick substitute to thistechnique may be the encapsulation of these cells and subsequentimplantation in animals. These animals would then be treated or screenedwith a variety of drugs/chemotherapeutic agents and a more realistic invivo picture of the toxicity and efficacy of these drugs on theencapsulated cells may be obtained by examining these cells followingretrieval from the animal. Such in vivo assessments cannot be performedwithout the benefits of immunoisolation afforded by the encapsulationtechnology. A variety of tumor cells may be treated using thistechnique.

EXAMPLE 29 Chemical Modification of Other Naturally OccurringPolysaccharides

Hyaluronic acid (HA) has recently provoked much interest in thebiomedical and pharmaceutical industries. Esterified HA has been usedfor drug delivery (Della Valle, 1987b (8.)) and HA crosslinked withpolyhydric alcohols has been used in the preparation of surgicalarticles (Della Valle, 1988 (9.)). Debelder and Malson (1988 (5.)) havedescribed the crosslinking of HA with polyfunctional reagents, such asdiepoxides, to produce water-swelling and biodegradable materials forsurgical implants and the prevention of postsurgical adhesions. HA couldbe modified using the same techniques outlined in Examples 1-7 and 8-13to produce a rapidly photocrosslinkable gel.

EXAMPLE 30 Polysaccharides for Use as Bioadhesives

Alginates or HA when polymerized or crosslinked on a tissue, adhered tothe tissue on the contact side while remaining nonadhesive and`slippery` on the air side. This was probably due to intimate contactand mixing between the mucus layer on the tissue and the polysaccharidein solution. It was found that when tissues were brought together inclose proximity and the polysaccharide gelled in contact with bothtissues, a firm adherence was obtained. Vascular anastomoses and bowelanastomoses performed in rats using these gels showed complete healingin 2-3 weeks with no problem of leakage or mechanical failure. Anotheruse of the gels as an adhesive would be in ophthalmic use. Eye surgeryoften requires incision of the cornea. In wound closure, instead ofsuturing, the corneal incision could be closed using the polymerizablealginates. This `bandage` would be slippery and cause a greatly reduceddegree of discomfort that results from sutures.

EXAMPLE 31 Photocrosslinked Hyaluronic Acid in the Prevention ofPostoperative Adhesions

Postoperative adhesions, or filmy connective or scar tissue bridgesformed during the normal healing process following surgery, often resultin bowel obstructions and infertility arising from kinking of fallopiantubes following abdominal surgery. The isolation of wounded tissue (as aresult of surgery) by use of a physical barrier between this tissue theand the surrounding organs has been shown to alleviate these problems.HA has been used previously for this purpose, albeit in a soluble form.As expected, even fairly viscous solutions of HA are likely to dissolveaway resulting in the eventual formation of adhesions. The use of insitu photopolymerization of HA resulting in the formation of a cohesivegel around the injured tissue is likely to efficiently isolate theinjured tissue from surrounding organs and thus prevent the formation ofadhesions.

EXAMPLE 32 Photocrosslinked Alginate and Chitosan Gel Compositions foruse in Wound Healing

Wounds that involve broken or damaged skin run the risk of becominginfected with airborne or waterborne bacteria and may result inimproperly healed wounds in the mild cases to life threatening problemsin severe cases such as burns. In addition to the risk of infection,excessive loss of moisture from the wound may also result in poorhealing. As is well known, severe burns are excruciatingly painful for apatient, and can present severe and even life threatening problems ifthe burned skin sloughs off exposing subdermal layers. In this contextit is desirable to provide a dressing or covering which would in effectform a substitute "skin" for the patient. This would require that thedressing "breathe" or have adequate air permeability characteristics. Atthe same time it is desirable that the proper moisture conditions bemaintained for prompt healing of burned skin; for example, anappropriate dressing must not absorb excessive moisture and thus dry thewound, inasmuch as this will inhibit proper healing. In addition,pharmacologically active agents may be impregnated into the dressingwhich upon release at the wound site may stimulate the healing process.

Alginate and chitosan have been previously used in wound dressing.Chitosan is known to have a stimulatory effect on cell growth. We havedemonstrated in the past that alginates containing higher percentages ofβ-D mannuronic acid (high M-content) are cytokine stimulatory whilethose containing higher fractions of α-L guluronic acid residues(G-content) do not induce cytokines responsible for fibroblastproliferation Soon-Shiong, 1991 (30.)!. While the high G-contentalginates are useful in cell encapsulation, the high M-content alginateshelp stimulate wound healing. Polysaccharides such as alginates andchitosan modified with polymerizable groups have applications ascrosslinked gel dressings for wound healing. By polymerizing thesematerials along with suitable monomers a variety of gel types in termsof varying physical properties may be obtained ranging from soft andsticky to hard and tough for use in a variety of wound healingapplications.

Alginates having very high percentages (>90%) of mannuronic acidresidues (high M-content) are very effective in promoting cellproliferation through cytokine stimulation. This effect is of greatpotential benefit in a variety of applications, such as wound healing,as well as in the treatment of sepsis in internal or external wounds.According to the "egg-box" model for crosslinking with multivalentcations (see Smidsr.o slashed.d and Skjak-Br.ae butted.k, 1990 (28.)),the ionically crosslinking residues in an alginate are predominantly theguluronic acid residues. Thus, polymannuronic acid or polymannuronates,i.e., alginates with high M-content, have poor gelling properties whenexposed to multivalent cations. Consequently, such alginates do not formstable gels with properties useful for such applications as thepreparation of wound healing products. Accordingly, the preparation of apolymerizable alginate having a high polymannuronic acid orpolymannuronate content would be desirable for numerous applications.Such a crosslinkable material can be prepared by imparting the abilityto undergo free radical initiated crosslinking to high polymannuronicacid or high polymannuronate content materials employing the methods ofthe present invention.

Several monomers were used for copolymerization with the acrylatederivatives of alginate and chitosan. As examples are acrylamide (AA),acrylic acid, allyl digylcol carbonate, ethylene glycol diacrylate,glyceryl acrylate, methylene bisacrylamide (MBA), polyethylene glycoldiacrylate, hydroxyethyl acrylate, hydroxethyl methacrylate, sodiumacrylate, vinyl pyrrolidinone, vinyl pyridine, etc. Photopolymerizationwith the above described photocatalysts is the presently preferredtechnique of polymerization for the production of crosslinked gels,although those of skill in the art are aware that there are a plethoraof techniques available for this purpose, one example of which isthermal polymerization using potassium persulfate as the initiator. Thefollowing table relates compositions of polymerized gels withcorresponding physical properties.

    ______________________________________                                        Alginate AA     Water     Glycerol                                                                             MBA    Physical                              Acrylate (g)                                                                           (g)    (g)       (g)    (g)    Property                              ______________________________________                                        0.1      0.1    3.75      1.25   0.01   fragile,                                                                      soft,                                                                         slippery                              0.1      0.5    3.75      1.25   0.01   fragile,                                                                      elastic                               0.1      1.0    3.75      1.25   0.01   elastic,                                                                      sticky                                0.1      1.5    3.75      1.25   0.01   elastic,                                                                      sticky,                                                                       pliable                               0.1      2.0    3.75      1.25   0.01   elastic,                                                                      sticky,                                                                       strong                                0.1      3.0    3.75      1.25   0.01   strong,                                                                       mildly                                                                        elastic                               0.1      5.0    3.75      1.25   0.01   strong,                                                                       tough                                 ______________________________________                                    

In the above example, only the amount of acrylamide is varied. Therelative amounts of water, glycerol, and MBA may also be varied tochange the physical properties of resultant gels. Similar gels wereprepared from chitosan acrylate, alginate methacrylate, chitosanmethacrylate, and allyl ethers of alginate and chitosan. Gels of thesematerials were prepared as flat sheets that could be applied to a wound.The sticky materials were tacky enough to remain bonded to skinsurrounding a wound, while other materials could be adhered to a woundby means of an adhesive or by using a backing that provided adhesionaround the wound site.

While the invention has been described in detail with reference tocertain preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood thatmodifications and variations are within the spirit and scope of thatwhich is described and claimed.

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We claim:
 1. Microcapsules comprising biologically active materialencapsulated in a modified biocompatible material which has beensubjected to free radical polymerization under biocompatible conditionsin an aqueous media that is free of organic solvents, wherein saidmaterial has the formula:

    A--X

wherein: A is selected from the group consisting of polysaccharides,polycations and lipids, X is a moiety containing a carbon-carbon doublebond or triple bond capable of free radical polymerization; and A and Xare linked covalently through linkages selected from the groupconsisting of ester, ether, thioether, disulfide, amide, secondaryamines, tertiary amines, direct C--C linkages, sulfate esters, sulfonateesters, phosphate esters, urethanes, and carbonates; and wherein thelargest physical dimension of said microcapsule, including theencapsulated material, does not exceed 1 mm.
 2. The microcapsules ofclaim 1 wherein said biologically active material is:individual livingcells or groups of living cells; at least one pharmacologically activedrug; or at least one diagnostic agent.
 3. The microcapsules of claim 2wherein said living cells comprise islets of Langerhans.
 4. Themicrocapsules of claim 1, wherein A is further covalently linked to Y,wherein Y is an alkylene glycol, polyalkylene glycol, or hydrophobiconium cation, wherein the linkage between Y and A is selected from thegroup consisting of the covalent linkages ester, ether, thioether,disulfide, amide, secondary amines, tertiary amines, direct C--Clinkages, sulfate esters, sulfonate esters, phosphate esters, urethanes,and carbonates; or said linkage between Y and A is the ionic linkage##STR9## wherein Q is nitrogen or phosphorus, and R is hydrogen, analkyl radical, an aryl radical, an alkaryl radical, or an aralkylradical.
 5. The microcapsules of claim 4, wherein A is a polysaccharideselected from the group consisting of alginate, high M-content alginate,polymannuronic acid, polymannuronate, hyaluronic acid, chitosan, chitin,cellulose, starch, glycogen, guar gum, locust bean gum, dextran, levan,inulin, cyclodextrin, agarose, xanthan gum, carageenan, heparin, pectin,gellan gum, and scleroglucan.
 6. The microcapsules of claim 5, whereinsaid polysaccharide is sulfonated.
 7. The microcapsules of claim 4,wherein A is a polycation selected from the group consisting ofpolyhistidine, polylysine, polyornithine, polyarginine,polyalanine-polylysine, poly(histidine, glutamicacid)-polyalanine-polylysine, poly(phenylalanine, glutamicacid)-polyalanine-polylysine, poly(tyrosine, glutamicacid)-polyalanine-polylysine, collagen, gelatin; random copolymers of:arginine with tryptophan, tyrosine, or serine; glutamic acid withlysine; glutamic acid with lysine, ornithine; and mixtures of any two ormore thereof.
 8. The microcapsules of claim 4, wherein A is a lipidselected from the group consisting of phosphatidylethanolamine,phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylglycerol anddilaurylphosphatidic acid.
 9. The microcapsules of claim 4, wherein saidmodified biocompatible material is ionically and covalently crosslinked.10. The microcapsules of claim 1, wherein A is a polysaccharide selectedfrom the group consisting of alginate, high M-content alginate,polymannuronic acid, polymannuronate, hyaluronic acid, chitosan, chitin,cellulose, starch, glycogen, guar gum, locust bean gum, dextran, levan,inulin, cyclodextrin, agarose, xanthan gum, carageenan, heparin, pectin,gellan gum, and scleroglucan.
 11. The microcapsules of claim 10, whereinsaid polysaccharide is sulfonated.
 12. The microcapsules of claim 1,wherein A is a polycation selected from the group consisting ofpolyhistidine, polylysine, polyornithine, polyarginine,polyalanine-polylysine, poly(histidine, glutamicacid)-polyalanine-polylysine, poly(phenylalanine, glutamicacid)-polyalanine-polylysine, poly(tyrosine, glutamicacid)-polyalanine-polylysine, collagen, gelatin; random copolymers of:arginine with tryptophan, tyrosine, or serine; glutamic acid withlysine; glutamic acid with lysine, ornithine; and mixtures of any two ormore thereof.
 13. The microcapsules of claim 1, wherein A is a lipidselected from the group consisting of phosphatidylethanolamine,phsphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylglycerol anddilaurylphosphatidic acid.
 14. The microcapsules of claim 1, whereinsaid modified biocompatible material is ionically and covalentlycrosslinked.
 15. The microcapsules of claim 1, wherein said modifiedbiocompatible material is produced by chemically modifying abiocompatible material having a reactive functionality thereon with areactive species capable of free radical polymerization.
 16. Themicrocapsules of claim 15, wherein said reactive functionality is ahydroxyl, carboxyl, primary or secondary amine, aldehyde, ketone orester group.
 17. The microcapsules of claim 15, wherein said reactivespecies is an alkenoic acid or the corresponding acid chloride or acidanhydride, alkenol, alkenyl halide or organometallic alkenyl compound.18. The microcapsules of claim 17, wherein said reactive species is analkenoic acid anhydride.
 19. The microcapsules of claim 15, wherein saidreactive species is an acryloyl chloride, methacryloyl chloride, acrylicacid, methacrylic acid, acrylic anhydride, methacrylic anhydride, allylalcohol, allyl chloride, or vinyl magnesium bromide.
 20. A drug deliverysystem comprising the microcapsules of claim
 1. 21. A method of making amicrocapsule containing biologically active material encapsulatedtherein, said method comprising:a) suspending said biologically activematerial in aqueous media that is free of organic solvents, along with amixture of a modified biocompatible polymerizable material capable ofundergoing free radical polymerization and a free radical initiatingsystem, wherein said modified biocompatible material has the formula:

    A--X

wherein:A is selected from the group consisting of polysaccharides,polycations and lipids, and X is a moiety containing a carbon-carbondouble bond or triple bond capable of free radical polymerization; and Aand X are linked covalently through linkages selected from the groupconsisting of ester, ether, thioether, disulfide, amide, secondaryamines, tertiary amines, direct C--C linkages, sulfate esters, sulfonateesters, phosphate esters, urethanes, and carbonates; b) forming discreteparticles comprising said biologically active material surrounded by themodified biocompatible polymerizable material, wherein the largestphysical dimension of said discrete particles, including thebiologically active material, does not exceed 1 mm; and c) subjectingthe modified biocompatible polymerizable material to free radicalgenerating conditions.
 22. The method according to claim 21, furthercomprising adding a comonomer in the suspending step.
 23. The methodaccording to claim 21, wherein said free radical initiating systemcomprises a photosensitizing agent and a cocatalyst.
 24. The methodaccording to claim 23, wherein said photosensitizing agent is a dyeselected from ethyl eosin, eosin, erythrosin, riboflavin, fluoroscein,rose bengal, methylene blue, or thionine; andsaid cocatalyst istriethanolamine, arginine, methyldiethanol amine, or triethylamine. 25.The method according to claim 23, wherein said mixture further comprisesat least one comonomer.
 26. The method according to claim 25, whereinsaid comonomer is selected from vinyl pyrrolidinone, acrylamide,methacrylamide, acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, sodium acrylate, sodiummethacrylate, hydroxyethyl acrylate, hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA),ethylene glycol diacrylate, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate,pentaerythritol triacrylate, pentaerythritol trimethacrylate,trimethylol propane triacrylate, trimethylol propane trimethacrylate,tripropylene glycol diacrylate, tripropylene glycol dimethacrylate,glyceryl acrylate, glyceryl methacrylate, or combinations of any two ormore thereof.
 27. The method according to claim 21, wherein saidmodified biocompatible polymerizable material is further covalentlylinked thereto Y, wherein Y is selected from alkylene glycols,polyalkylene glycols, or hydrophobic onium cations, wherein saidmodified biocompatible material has the formula

    Y--A--X

wherein the linkage between Y and A is selected from the covalentlinkages ester, ether, thioether, disulfide, amide, secondary amines,tertiary amines, direct C--C linkages, sulfate esters, sulfonate esters,phosphate esters, urethanes, or carbonates; or the ionic linkage##STR10## wherein Q is nitrogen or phosphorus, and R is hydrogen, analkyl radical, an aryl radical, an alkaryl radical, or an aralkylradical.
 28. The method according to claim 21, further comprisingsubjecting said modified biocompatible polymerizable material to ioniccrosslinking conditions.